Causes of the Lebanese Civil War

Causes of the Lebanese Civil War The Middle Eastern region has always been a symbol of regional instability; much like a leaky propane tank in an area prone to wild fires, just one spark in the wrong place can create an inferno. The subject of this investigation is to determine the primary causes for the Lebanese Civil War, why the fighting persisted for the better part of two decades, and how it finally ended. Using books written at the time of the war from scholarly sources and examining the firsthand accounts of individuals affected by the war, we will be able to at least draw some conclusions of how and why history unfolded the way it has. For fifteen years (1975-1990), Lebanon was embroiled in a vicious civil war that ultimately resulted in de facto Syrian military control over the small Middle Eastern state and left thousands of people dead—many non-combatant civilians. Most civil wars are fought between two religious or political factions, but the belligerents included the Lebanese Front, Syria, the Palestinian Liberation Organisation (PLO), Israel, and the Lebanese National Movement (LNM), though it can be argued that this was a battle of control between the region’s Muslim and Christian populations though the scope of interests involved would make it far more significant. Thus, it would not be entirely accurate to refer to this conflict as a ‘civil war’, but an ideological struggle of an entire region fought on a very small piece of land. According to David C. Gordon in his book Lebanon, the Fragmented Nation, ‘It has been a war between haves and have-nots, Christians and Muslims, Lebanese nationalists and non-Lebanese Palestinians, as well as a war between rival Arab states and ideologies on Lebanese soil, and part of the confrontation between Israel, the Arabs, and more.’[1] Summary of Evidence: A Timeline Lebanon obtains her independence in 1946.[2] The state of Israel is formed in 1948. Palestinian refugees are driven from Israeli territory to neighbouring countries. Lebanon attempts to absorb more than half a million Palestinian refugees, not really welcoming them into the society. Stability is compromised during the 1960s and power shifts several times ultimately leading to civil war in 1958.[3] During the 1960s and 1970s, the PLO violates Lebanese sovereignty to attack Israel. Lebanese society is polarized as the Muslim minority feels powerless and allies itself with more powerful Muslim forces such as the PLO and the Syrians.[4] Christian majority allies themselves with the nationalist forces. Open warfare breaks out in 1975 and becomes a microcosm for the rest of the conflict in the Middle East.[5] An Evaluation of Sources Itamar Rabinovich’s The War for Lebanon 1970-1985 was a source of basic information. It identified the various factions and their objectives and provided a summary of the major events in the war and the tensions leading up to it. A valuable source for someone that needs to familiarise themselves with the general situation, though it does not adopt a particular perspective. This would be a good place to start when beginning research. In Syria and Iran by Anoushiravan Ehteshami and Raymond A. Hinnebusch, the subject of discussion focused on the growing hegemony of Syria and Iran as an opposition to Israel’s growth in the Middle East. At first glance, the subject matter had very little to do with the Lebanese Civil War, however, the books sixth chapter introduces the theory that the war in Lebanon was critical to the interests of many factions in the region rather than being a simple resolution of sovereignty and government representation. ‘The struggle for Lebanon is most usefully understood, not as part of a civilizational conflict between Islam and the West, but as a conflict of national interests: if Israel could control Lebanon, it could smash Syrian and Palestinian resistance to its hegemony. Syria and Iran sought to make Lebanon, respectively, a buffer and a front in the struggle with Israel.’[6] This book was critical to understanding how a delicate situation was pushed into civil unrest by external forces. In this case, Iran and Syria were threatened by an Israel backed by the superpower that was the United States of America and much of the Shi’a Muslims in the region became more energized to resist that influence. Of special interest was the alliance of the Lebanese Shi’a Muslims with Syria and Iran, and their ultimate success. ‘The USA and Israel withdrew from Lebanon. Syria and Amal had forged an alliance in opposition to the USA, the Phalanges and Israel which would prove remarkably enduring.’[7] In contrast Lebanon, the Fragmented Nation by David Gordon was indispensable to understanding the internal issues that precipitated the war, focusing on the diverse nature of Lebanon and its inability to decide whether to become a part of a ‘greater’ Syrian society or remain the Arab World’s link to the West. When asked, the Christian and Muslim population offered radically different visions of the society that Lebanon should become.[8] This may suggest that religious diversity is not possible, especially when the religions involved tend to be expansionist and the practitioners themselves extremist, albeit co-existence is possible in a society where the diverse groups were moderate and non-expansionist (i.e. believe that everyone should abide by the mores of their particular group). While the first source couched the war in terms of Islam vs. Christianity and Zionism, this source explored the fundamental division between Christians and Muslims in Lebanese society, which could never lead to a lasting peace. The personal account provides a most important perspective for this investigation: the individual soldier or civilian whose life was impacted by the hostilities. Scholarly historical books and documents offer a bird’s eye view of the social and political forces that led to this outcome, however, it does not capture the personal element of how the individual is pushed into fighting for a particular cause. According to Lebanese writer Fawaz Gerges, the Civil War was a grand struggle ‘for the soul and future of the Muslim and Arab world.’[9] This is not an exaggerated statement given that the causes for the war and the parties involved originated beyond Lebanon’s borders, but the writer of this story wanted to express how the interference of the West and the extremism of the Christian soldiers began to inflame the passions of young jihadists. This source was chosen for its historical relevance because the jihadist movement is more powerful than ever in the twe nty-first century and Lebanon is considered more an ally of the Muslims than a Christian state even as it retains a sizeable Christian population. Although this does not show the origin of the war per se, this book highlights the origin of Muslim extremism and how a climate embroiled in religious strife can polarise the most moderate reasonable people. Analysis From the sources that were gathered for this study, it is clear that the seeds of the conflict were sown in 1948 when the Jewish state of Israel was formed. With its alliance with the Western world and a new religious influence in the area, it challenged the existing balance of power in the Middle East. As we know, the Palestinians already inhabiting the territory ceded to Israel were strongly opposed and began to attack the newly formed nation because there was a resentment against having to give up land that was theirs to begin with, and that they had done nothing wrong to merit its loss. When the Israelis won and expanded their borders, many Palestinians were forced to seek refuge in neighbouring countries. When Jordan expelled many of the Palestinian refugees for reasons of national security, the refugees (along with PLO forces) began to migrate into Lebanon in greater numbers. Political asylum seekers that could not have easily assimilated into Lebanese culture were absorbed int o the population resulting from Israel’s treaty with Lebanon. ‘One result of Israel’s creation was that Lebanon became host to many of the some 700,000 Arab Palestinian refugees. Most of the Diaspora was Muslim, and so in this predominantly Christian state, it was inconceivable that they should be given citizenship and assimilated. To do so would have been to undermine the statistically based legitimacy of the Establishment to continue to rule. Muslims of course took full note of the fact that when thousands of Christian Armenians had poured into Lebanon after the First World War they had been quickly provided with the rights of citizenship.’[10] Lebanon had only been independent of France for two years and a nation is most vulnerable in the first years of formation as the stronger factions seek to overcome the minority groups and the new order overturns outdated power structures, and attempted coups by ambitious power brokers were rather common.[11] With the influx of Palestinian refugees, the balance of power began to shift. The Lebanese government was created to empower both Christians and Muslims. The President of Lebanon must be a Maronite Christian and the Prime Minister must be a Muslim. However, the balance of power strongly favoured Christians. When Muslims began agitating for more influence because they believed they were in the majority, a mini-civil war was fought in 1958, which claimed 4,000 lives leaving the region even more fraught with religious tension. The rise of religious extremism in general and Muslim fundamentalism in particular characterised the 1970s social and political climate, and many hard line members of the Abrahamic religions believed that their sect should be in control of the Holy Land, with the city of Jerusalem at its centre. While this in and of itself was not enough to spark the war in Lebanon per se, Palestine’s insistence on using its adopted country as a staging ground for an attack on Israel polarised the Lebanese people into two camps. The Muslim faction supported Palestine’s military efforts while the Christians were strongly opposed, and many Christians commonly support the Jewish claim to the city of Jerusalem. Considering Lebanon’s religiously and politically diverse population, it is not difficult to imagine that obtaining a consensus on foreign relations would be extremely difficult. This was especially true once the United States and Europe were intervening on behalf of the newly formed Jewish state that most of the Arab nations in the region wished to destroy. Tensions between the Lebanese and Palestinians escalated as the Palestinian Liberation Organisation (PLO) sought to fight Israel from Lebanese territory, which suggests that the root of this conflict was the seizure of Palestinian lands when Israel was founded in 1948. ‘It was not the Lebanese that started the violence; rather, Israel’s dispossession of the Palestinians was the root of the Lebanese civil war and the civil war was greatly exacerbated by the 1982 Israeli invasion which was supported by the USA in order to smash the PLO and the Islamic movement and reinforce Israel.’[12] Conclusion After Israel’s invasion of Lebanon in 1982, the Shi’a Islamic group Hezbollah was created as a political group that provides social services to the Shiites living in Lebanon, however, it is considered a terrorist organisation in the West. The Ayatollah Khomeini’s revolution in Iran inspired and influenced the development of radical and powerful Islamic political groups in Lebanon, and eventually the small nation had become an enemy of Israel and the West. The Lebanese Civil War was a historically significant event because it led to a revival of Islam centred on Jihad. The growing influence of the West in the Middle East caused moderate Arab Muslims to turn to religious extremism, which is evident in the acts of terrorism taking place in the Middle East, Asia, Europe, and North America. Would the war have taken place had the United Nations never introduced the state of Israel into the region? It is rather unlikely, as the Palestinians would have remained in their homeland and many speculate that there would not be a radical Muslim movement except at the fringes of society, much in the same way that hard line Christian sects are on the fringes of European society. However, it is usually quite difficult to predict what would happen on an alternate timeline because who would have known that the assassination of two aristocrats in Austria-Hungary would have led to one of the worst wars of all time? Bibliography Ehteshami, A Hinnebusch, R A (1997) Syria and Iran: Middle powers in a penetrated regional system Routledge, London Gerges, F A (2006) Journey of the Jihadist: Inside Muslim Militancy Harcourt Trade, Orlando, Florida USA Gordon, D C (1980) Lebanon, the Fragmented Nation Croom Helm Ltd, London Rabinovich, I (1985) The War for Lebanon, 1970-1985 Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York USA 1 Footnotes [1] D C Gordon (1980) p. 234 [2] Gordon (ibid.) p. 49 [3] Rabinovich (1985) p. 42 [4] A Ehteshami R A Himmebusch (1997) p. 116 [5] Gerges, F A (2006) p. 61 [6] Ehteshami Hinnebusch (ibid.) p. 116 [7] Ehteshami Hinnebusch (ibid.) p. 122 [8] Gordon (ibid.) p. 145 [9] Gerges (ibid.) p. 61 [10] Gordon (ibid.) p. 49 [11] Gordon (ibid.) p. 50 [12] Ehteshami Hinnebusch (ibid.) p. 127

Langston Hughes Impact on an Era Essay

Langston Hughes contributed a tremendous influence on black culture throughout the United States during the era known as the Harlem Renaissance. He is usually considered to be one of the most prolific and most-recognized black poets of the Harlem Renaissance. He broke through barriers that very few black artists had done before this period. Hughes was presented with a great opportunity with the rise black art during the 1920’s and by his creative style of poetry, which used black culture as its basis and still appealed to all ethnicities. Until the Harlem Renaissance, poetry and literature were dominated by white people and were all about white culture. However, during the 1920’s, there was an explosion of black literature and, art poured from black artists and activists who represented black pride and individuality from the white dominance (â€Å"The Harlem Renaissance, Washington†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Online). This movement was sparked in the lower and upper Manhattan sections of New York City. Originally known as the New Negro Movement, it later became known as the Harlem Renaissance due to where it was birthed and seemed to be the area that it burned the most intense. One of the reasons why there was a rise in black culture in the Harlem area is due to the great migration of blacks to Northern cities during the early 1920’s. Racial discrimination, segregation, and interracial tension were also contributing factors to the Harlem Renaissance. Blacks were tired of being part of white America and wanted to break free and express not only black pride but, black culture as well. Langston Hughes emerged as one of the front men of the black movement of expression and art through the use of his poetic writing (â€Å"Harlem Renaissance† Online). Hughes wrote novels, plays, short stories, essays, and children’s books but, he focused most of his attention on poems. Most of Hughes better-known poems were written at the height of the Harlem Renaissance. Hughes was born in Joplin, Missouri, where he was raised primarily by his mother (Howes and Slovey 56). In 1921 Hughes enrolled at Columbia University in New York City. While in New York, Hughes became more intrigued with the rise of black culture in Harlem as opposed to his schoolwork. During the course of the next few years Hughes would make a name for himself with some of his famous  works such as the poem â€Å"The Negro Speaks of Rivers† and his book The Weary Blues (Howes and Slovey 58). However, he first gained recognition from some of his poems that were put in an anthology called The New Negro. He gained praise from not only blacks but, also from white supporters of the Harlem Renaissance (Strickland 31). He had made his way into the mainstream of great p oets and was making an impact for not only himself but for the black community with his creative poetic style (Wagner 386). How could one black man stand above all the other emerging black artists as much as Langston Hughes did? Hughes wanted to speak for the black community which he was so immersed in. He wanted to do it in a way though that the readers, especially blacks, were able to relate on a personal level to his poems. He did this by use modern forms such as free verse where he did not have to follow a pattern or use rhymes. He sought to make his poetry easy to understand but at the same time portray black culture with both realism and dignity (Howes and Slovey 59). He also wrote in black dialect and used black culture such as jazz to present his poems. He would not only use the freedom in his poems like jazz did but, he would also write to the rhythm and beat of jazz music which made it flow with a different style. He spoke of both the low times and the good times of the black community (Strickland 32). The style, the simplicity, and the culture that was presented in Hughes poems are what made him shine above other black artists. This is how one man went off on his own path and affected black literature as much as he did. Hughes affected the world of poetry during an era that was enriched with the rise black culture by using his own creative style. He drew not just the black communities praise but, the dominating white cultures as well. He has proven by his success to be one of the greatest influences during the Harlem Renaissance. He made a path for both the black community in general and the world of poetry on the whole. Works Cited â€Å"Harlem Renaissance.† MSN Encarta. 3 November 2004 . Howes, Kelly, and Christine Slovey, eds. Harlem Renaissance. San Francisco: Gale Group, 2001. Kovacs, Joe. â€Å"The Harlem Renaissance, Washington, DC and the Rise of Langston Hughes.† Literary Traveler. 3 November 2004 . Strickland, Michael. African-American Poets. Berkeley Heights: Enslow Publishers, 1996. Wagner, Jean. Black Poets of the United States from Paul Laurence Dunbar to Langston Hughes. Urbana: U of Illinois P, 1973.

NPV method

This report focuses on three Important areas of financial management namely Capital structure, Management of Working Capital and Investment appraisal. While the flirt two parts of the report analysis Apple's activities, the last part of the report is related to the given scenario. The first part of the report evaluates Apple's capital structure. After determining the company's capital structure, the report will evaluate different financing options for the company's capital investments. The analysis involves the cost of debt and equity. The aim Is to justify the financing decision for a Eng term.The second part of the report evaluates the performance of Apple's working capital management practices. This part relies on the ratio analysis. Current Ratio, Debtors, Creditors and Inventory days will be calculated over a three years period. The data is gathered from the Yahoo Finance. In order to make the analysis more meaningful there will be a benchmarking with a main competitor. The last part of the report conducts NAP analysis to find out the best investment option for the given scenario. The project with the highest NAP is likely to be most beneficial for the company.Subsequently conclusions will be drawn. Reason for Choosing Apple for this study I have a personal interest in this company as it is seen the most successful company in the world at the moment. I will be able to learn from the best practice. Capital Structure and Financing Decision A firm's optimal capital structure is the mix of debt and equity that minimizes the weight cost of capital of the firm. When the cost of capital is minimized, the total value of firm's shares are maximized. As a result the minimum cost capital structure is called as the optimum capital structure. (Moyer et al. 012) According to Moles et al. (201 1) managers decide on the optimum capital structure based on the trade-offs between the benefits and costs of debt. The fact that there are a number of different benefits and costs associated with the use of debt flagging suggests that managers will balance these different options. Moles et al. (2012) explains that debt can be cheaper as debt is less risky than the equity. In addition, there is a tax advantage with debt financing as interest expenses are generally tax deductible. Another world, the company pays less tax if they use debt financing.However, a company can go into liquation If It cannot payback Its debts of Interest obligations. According to Apple's financial statements on Yahoo Finance (2012) over the last three years period (2009, 2010 and 2011 ) the company did not have any long term debt as well as short term debt. While the company's retained earnings increased from $23. 4 billion in 2009 to $37 billion in 2010 and this figure reached to $63 billion in 2011, the company financed its projects through retained profits. The company was able to do this because It had large profits. Apple's net profits were $8. Lion, $14 billion and $25. 9 billio n In 2009, 2010 and 201 1 respectively. According to the Apple's Annual and $1. 3 billion in 2011, 2010 and 2009 respectively. Currently the company is using equity option to finance its capital expenditure. According to BBC (2012) this year the company announced $2. 65 per share quarterly dividends. This is the first dividend payment since 1995. As the company does not pay regular dividends, it is not meaningful to calculate the company's cost of equity using the divided valuation model. However, the market prices of Apple shares increased almost 22% in 2011.Therefore, it can be said that Apple's cost of equity is quite high. In conclusion, currently Apple finances its capital projects through equity financing. With a possible debt financing the company is likely to reduce its cost of capital. This could be a good idea if the company's profit figures start to decline. According to the financial statements of the company Apple did not have any short term or long term loans between 2 009 and 2011. Analysis of working capital management Working capital management concerns with organizing a company's short term sources to sustain ongoing activities mobiles funds and optimism liquidity.It further dropped to 1. 61 in 2011. The company's figures can be compared with the Blackberry manufacturer RIM. RIM's current ratios are higher than Apple's in 2010 and 2011. RIM 2011 2010 2009 current Ratio 2. 08 2. 06 2. 39 The main reason for the decline in Apple's current ratio is decline in debtor and from 2010 to 2011. In the same period, the inventor days decline from 9. 3 days to 4. 4 days. This indicates that the efficiency of the company's working capital management as they were able to receive the money from debtors faster and to keep fewer inventories.The company also was able to keep creditors days high with 135. 5 days. Consequently the company's current ratio declined dramatically in recent years. However, this decline should be seen as a positive development as the c ompany has been leaner in recent years. Therefore, the figures above indicate the company's working management practices are successful. Investment Appraisal with NAP method Net present value (NAP) of a project is the sum of the present values of all its cash flows, both outflows and inflows. The rate used to discount the cash flows must be consistent with the project's risk.Another word, if the project risky then higher discount rates should be used when appraising the investment options. The same company might use different discount rates for its difference projects depending on a rockiness of the project. (Graham and Smart, 2011) According to Graham and Smart (2011) the companies can invest in any projects if the NAP figure is positive as any positive figure will increase the value of the company. The table below demonstrates the NAP calculations for an investment option. Delta Printing is considering buying machinery and there are three different purchase options.The machines ca n be used for a six-year period. After six year Machine A and B can be sold with a scraped value. Initial cost of each options are as follows; El m for Machine A, CHEEK for machine B and CHEEK for Machine C. According to the initial cost figures the Project C is the best option as it requires less investment. However, there will be no scrapped value for Machine C. With the original figures, it is difficult to make a decision. In this case, NAP method can simplify the investment decisions. The cash inflows are discounted with the company's cost of capital of 15%.

Online Learning Stochastic Approximation - 1139 Words

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